Maldives Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Maldives - Research Paper Example It not only contributed the most to the country’s GDP but also became the country’s greatest contributor to earning foreign currency (Ministry of Tourism, 2011). Over the years, Maldives has been a tourist attraction based on its tropical setting and favourable climate. Its aesthetic quality gives it the appearance of a paradise on the earth. Away from the hustle and bustle of daily lives, it attracts tourists from all over the world to enjoy tranquillity in its clear water and tropical climate. The several islands and blissful beaches of Maldives are ideal for relaxation. Maldives offers extraordinary underwater scenery and taking advantage of its clear waters, the islands have introduced water-sporting activities such as scuba diving, water skiing and kite boarding (Masters 2006). Recently, Maldives has been acknowledged as one of the best destinations of the world to experience recreational diving (Garrod et al 2008). Alongside these positive aspects of tourism in Ma ldives, it must be noted that this flourishing sector is also resulting in some adverse effects on the wildlife of the islands and their natural surroundings. The increasing numbers of tourists that visit Maldives throughout the years are known to be a cause of disruption of the natural environment of Maldives’ wildlife. Due to this large influx of tourists visiting the islands, Maldives is experiencing a slow yet massive decline in its wildlife (Shelton 2010). Ormond, a leading scientist at SaveOurSeas Foundation, claimed that even though tourism may provide the financial support to preserve the water species, it may negatively affect the feeding patterns of the animals, which may migrate or decline in population; therefore, degrading the wildlife experienced by the tourists. In 2009, Maldives was awarded the title of Marine Protected Area (MPA) and laws and regulations were enacted for control and prevention of harm to the islands’ flora, fauna and wildlife. Despite these laws and regulations, the wildlife is declining, mainly because of the lack of effective reinforcement of these laws. Stevens, a researcher working to save the lives of the manta rays, claims that without ensuring quick control on numbers of tourists and other regulations regarding the influx of people, the islands will experience a great negative impact due to its largest contributor towards economy. Therefore, proper management must be enacted for the betterment of wildlife and the tourist experience (Shelton 2010). Moreover, in the last three decades of flourishing tourism, Maldives has experienced a rise in the number of resorts available to tourists on the islands. However, interestingly, the locals do not reside in the same areas where the resorts are located. Therefore, the tourists are quite segregated from the local population of the islands. This limits the positive and negative impacts on both the tourists and the locals. The tourists may be unable to understand the culture or even the frustration the locals feel at the negative impacts of tourism while the locals may be unable to grasp foreign cultures and therefore, exposure to the international world is limited. II) Historical Origins   Initially, the economy of Maldives was almost entirely based on fisheries, yet towards the end of the 20th century, Maldives became introduced to the world as a tourist spot. Since

Isolation, Enumeration, Identification and Confirmation of Lab Report

Isolation, Enumeration, Identification and Confirmation of Food-Poisoning Microbes from Food ( ) - Lab Report Example In our experiment we will test 10g of lettuce for presence of bacteria that presumably caused outbreak of food-poisoning in a local school. Several children have been complaining of diarrhea, abdominal pain and some have started passing blood in their stool. The lettuce was on the menu as a fresh salad 3 days earlier. We will try to conduct microbiological investigation of the bacteria that are present in the lettuce. Then we will identify if there are present any organisms that can cause food born infection. If organisms are found we will try to find the specific group of bacteria. Also we will have to calculate the concentration of these bacteria and made a conclusion if this concentration is sufficient to cause a disease. In order to test for presence for bacteria we will prepare the food sample for examination. The lettuce was placed in Maximum recovery diluent (MRD) which is an isotonic liquid that contains small concentrations of peptone and it is used to maintaining the viability of eventually present organisms in the food. We than placed the lettuce in 90ml of MRD and put it in the stomacher for 30 sec. The stomacher transforms the food sample into homogenous suspension and promotes the releasing the bacteria into the liquid medium (MRD). We than made different dilutions of the suspension (10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 and 10-6) and inoculated them on different agar mediums. We used: Nutrition agar that was inoculated with 10-6 dilution of the suspension had 196 colony forming units, and according from the provided guidance, this dilution was used to calculate the colony forming units per gram according to the formula cfu/gram = No. of colonies x 10 x dilution factor. According to the formula the result nutrient agar produced 10140 cfu/gram. The Violet red bile glucose agar (VRBG) that was inoculated with dilution of 10-6

Identity theft and fraud Essay Example for Free

Identity theft and fraud Essay Identity theft and credit card fraud are two of the fastest growing white collar crimes in society today. Identity thieves and credit card fraud perpetrators are aided by todays continually developing technologies and low technology and crude methods like Dumpster diving or trash retrieval. However, more often than not, it is their victims own carelessness and public lack of awareness that often turn out to be these criminals biggest ally. On November 2007, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) released a report that put the number of cases of Identity theft reported in 2005 at 8. 9 million American adults or approximately 3. 7 percent of the US adult population. (FTC Releases Survey of Identity Theft in the U. S. Study Shows 8. 3 Million Victims in 2005) What is Identity theft? By definition, identity theft is what happens when someone other than ones self and without their knowledge uses his/her personal information such as social security and credit card numbers. With this information, it is easy for thieves to run up bills by ordering items on line or even apply for credit cards in the victims name. They of course get the benefit of spending while their poor victim is left with stacks of bills for purchases they did not make on cards they do not own. Some of these victims have even gone to jail and made to pay up debts they were not even aware existed (Identity Theft: How to, 24. ) There are a number of ways by which identity thieves and credit card frauds can victimize unsuspecting and hardworking citizens. The growing number of reports of instances where people are penalized for bills and financial charges they were not even aware of is alarming. What is even more alarming however is very few people are aware of how such incidents may be prevented by simple common sense measures. Detroit based Attorney and president of the American Bankruptcy Institute Richardo Kilpatrick stresses the importance of quick action saying that the longer the victim waits to dispute bills raised through fraud, the fewer rights they can expect to have. If not done properly, victims may be made responsible for the credit card charges. (24) To avoid credit card fraud and identity theft, the FTC along with other law enforcement and consumer advocacy groups recommend the following common-sense guidelines (Facts for Consumers) to protect themselves from identity theft and credit card fraud: 1. Keep your credit card in sight every time you use it. Make sure it is returned as quickly as possible. Unscrupulous people may easily write down your card number as well as other pertinent information found on your card. There are also electronic devices called skimmers (Shannon) that can not only read and copy card information embedded in the cards magnetic strip but also the verification codes that are needed by merchants to validate cards electronically from the issuing card companies. All the data downloaded by the skimmer are all a card counterfeiter needs to produce perfect duplicates of credit cards. 2. Keep identification, licenses and credit cards separate from your wallet. In case you are out shopping and your wallet gets snatched, at least your Ids and credit cards remain safe. Jason King, a spokesman for the American Association of Motor Vehicles Administrators (AAMVA) says that there are many ways an identity thief or common burglar may use a stolen drivers license and credit card. Access to someones drivers license, for example, leads to an amazing number of other opportunities in our society, he says, such as obtaining financial and health services, and everything else from renting a car to cashing a check and boarding an airplane. (Boulard) In a case cited in the US Department of Justice web site, a woman in the Southern District of Florida plead guilty to counts of federal charges on her applying for an obtaining a drivers license in the name of her victim. The said license was used by the woman to withdraw more that $13,000 from her victims bank account as well as applying for and receiving five department store credit cards in her victims name which she the used to rack up bills amounting to $4,000. (Identity Theft para. 16) In some cases, where ID cards have been stolen, thieves have been known to break into the homes of their victims stealing from them a second time. 3. Ignore emails that request for credit card information for verification purposes. Never entertain e-mail messages asking you to go to a web site to verify your personal and credit card information. There is a scam called phishing where computer-savvy identity thieves construct mirror web sites of legit companies such as PayPal or banks, that trick customers into divulging their personal and financial information. (OSullivan) 4. Sign credit cards as soon as you receive them. 5. Shred and dispose all credit card applications you receive in the mail. If thieves can get these applications it means they could also have gotten or have access to mail containing your personal information. Some thieves also resort to low-tech and old fashioned methods such as swiping mail from mailboxes, diving through trash cans and dumpsters, or working in league with employees of postal and card companies. At times, they also work with employees at restaurants, hotels and establishments that accept credit card payments warns Johnny May, an independent security consultant and author of Johnny Mays Guide to Preventing Identity Theft: How Criminals Steal Your Personal Information, How to Prevent it, and What to Do if You Become a Victim (Security Resources Unlimited L. L. C. ) (Young) The FTC also advises bank clients to tear up the change of address: forms that come with bank statements. In some cases, mail, pre-approved credit cards and other financial documents have been diverted by identity thieves to another address simply by filling out the banks change of address form that they dug out of your dumpster. 6. Never write your PIN numbers on ATM and credit cards. Once the card is stolen, the readiness of information on the card will just make it easier for thieves to bypass whatever validation or verification processes done by the card companies. When it comes to it, dont put slips of paper containing these PIN numbers in your wallet either. 7. Avoid leaving credit card receipts, bills and documents containing personal and financial information lying around even in familiar surroundings. In the magazine article Stolen Lives: Identity Theft Is the Countrys Fastest Growing Crime. Heres How to Protect Your Most Valuable Asset-You! by Stephanie Young, she details the experience of Tahira Scott who was victimized by her housemate who was also her cousin. We started getting bills in someone elses name. Then two employees from a car dealership came to Scotts job to see if the person who had tried to purchase a vehicle in her name was actually her. Although she was a little suspicious, Scott says she had no idea about her cousins misdeeds. I just thought it was a mistake, she says. (Young) 8. Keep an updated record of all bank and credit card account numbers with their expiration dates. Make sure that you also take note of the address and contact numbers of the bank and issuing card company just in case your cards get misplaced or stolen. There are people who realize that they cannot report credit card theft or losses simply because they have no record of their account and card numbers. 9. When using your credit card in public, it is better to be paranoid and shield your card from other peoples view just in case they manage to take pictures of your card face with all the info and numbers counterfeiters need. 10. Never carry around more credit cards than you need. The more cards a thief can get from you, the bigger the balances they can spend. 11. Do not delay opening your credit card bills. This may be crucial in determining whether you can still contest the charges made on your card. In my friend Brians case, his parents were away for months and therefore only got to open the bills when they got back. By then, it was too late to do anything but pay up or else suffer marks against their credit rating. 12. Keep receipts of purchases made with credit cards. That way, it will be easy to balance out credit card bills with purchases made. Any charges made without corresponding hard copies of receipts may necessitate a call to the card company to verify the charge. Always keep tracks of your monthly financial statements. The reason why most thieves get away with their activities is because some people just do not scrutinize the monthly statements from their banks and credit cards. 13. Never sign a blank credit card receipt. If such a receipt is presented to you, draw a line on the blank spaces to make it impossible for anyone to fill in amounts later on. Do not just sign anything absent-mindedly. As with contracts, signatures mean approval. And unfortunately, carelessness is not an acceptable reason in disputing bill payment collections. 14. Do not be taken in by calls from people offering prizes or credit cards with higher limits when they start asking for personal information. Social Security numbers, birthdays, mothers maiden name or credit card number, it is most likely a scam to get information out of you. Try to ask for a written application form or notice. Do not do over-the-phone transactions with people offering these kinds of things.

The Age Of Criminal Responsibility Criminology Essay

The Age Of Criminal Responsibility Criminology Essay One must be aware that the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child professes anyone under the age of eighteen is a child. However, in the criminal law, greater distinctions are made: anyone under 18 is a juvenile, aged 14-18 are classed as young persons and a person under 14 years old are classed definitively as a child. What does it mean to be a child in this modern era? Every person has experienced life as a child and could easily accumulate their own perspective, but that is exactly what it would be; a subjective definition that begins with infancy and ends when they reach adolescence. However, adolescence, for legal purposes must portray a mental, intellectual, emotional and more specifically, a moral capacity to differentiate right from wrong. Before one looks at the legal observations of childhood, it is only sensible to consider the words of those who dedicate their lives to the study of child psychology, and ultimately have wider knowledge. Psychological theory Piaget in his work, The Moral Judgement of the Child  [1]  established a theory of not only the cognitive, but also the moral development of a childs mind, prà ©cising that they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so. The psychologist Kohlberg expanded on Piagets position  [2]  , and their theories make it plain that by ten children are not capable of making moral decisions similar to that of an adult, as they have not fully learned to do so. The theories suggest that there are 2 stages of moral reasoning (which sometimes overlap) named the heteronomous stage and the autonomous stage. At the heteronomous stage, the child is egocentric and believes the world revolves around them, and they will act depending on the severity of the outcome. This stage continues past the age of ten, so before they reach the next stage it is unlikely that they will be aware of the severity of any outcome. Subsequently, when they are in the autonomous stage, intentions are more important than the consequences of action and should be the basis for judging behaviour, and it is then that a child should be held accountable for his or her actions, not before. The theories suggested here are, of course, non-conclusive and non-exhaustive, but at least give an insight into the questionable nature of the entire concept of an absolute age of criminal responsibility, so it would be worthwhile to keep these theories in mind throughout the discussion. The age of criminal responsibility The age of criminal responsibility in England and Wales is ten years.  [3]  All children under this age are presumed to be doli incapax (incapable of committing a crime). After reaching the age of ten however, and as Elizabeth Stokes informs us, there is nothing within the substantive criminal law regarding the attribution of guilt, which distinguishes the responsibility of young people from that of adults.  [4]   The Home Office White Paper in 1997, signalled the start of New Labours tough and punitive, No More Excuses campaign by declaring that; Young people who commit offences must face up to the consequences of their actions for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ No young person should be allowed to feel that he or she can offend with impunity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Punishment is important as a means of expressing societys condemnation of unlawful behaviour and as a deterrent.  [5]   Even though there was much discussion with reference to raising the age in the late 1960s after the Government White paper Children in Trouble  [6]  (1968) along with Section 4 of the Children and Young Persons Act 1969 which would have raised the age of criminal responsibility to 14 but was never implemented and the provision was repealed in 1991. This introduced an unnaturally bold dividing line between criminal responsibility and irresponsibility for children who offend. This was the case even though arguments have been put forward suggesting that to criminalise and label children is very dangerous, with Deborah Orr proposing that, if a child has behaved in a fashion that he or she feels he had little or no control over, and then is told this is criminal, then the child is being taught that his or her criminality is something over which he has no control.  [7]  The following doctrine attempted to decrease the amount of children being labelled until it was abolished. Doli incapax Protection or a waste of time? Before the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 which abolished the doctrine, there had existed for hundreds of years  [8]  protection for children aged between 10 and 14 years. This protection was the rebuttable presumption that children were doli incapax. Under this legal doctrine, as expounded in the case of C v DPP  [9]  in addition to committing the actus reus and mens rea of a criminal offence the prosecution also had to prove beyond reasonable doubt that they knew what they were doing was seriously wrong. This doctrine was working as a filter which recognised childhood to stop 10 being the absolute age of criminal responsibility. Children aged between 10 and 14 years benefited from the presumption as it protected them from the detrimental effects of the enforcement of criminal law.  [10]  But despite this, it could be suggested that the doctrine did not work as it was professed to as it still did not stop children being prosecuted; as the prosecution only had to prove that children knew the difference between the extreme opposites of right and gravely wrong, and not mere naughtiness and wrong. For example, Bandalli suggests that children have a very flexible approach to ownership, if one were to look at the contents of the Theft Act 1968, s.1(1) describes the crime as dishonesty with intent to permanently deprive a concept which children might only be aware of as merely borrowing. So in practice it did not work sufficiently, but it cannot be ignored that it had very strong symboli sm, which was arguably the most important aspect. The symbolism of the doctrine An excellent point made by Pickford questions why the opponents of abolition continue to have faith in a doctrine which has proved to be so inadequate in protecting children anyway.  [11]  But this is perhaps because at least some acknowledgement was given to the notion of childhood with doli incapax, differentiating their treatment from that of adults. It made the police, the CPS and the judiciary stop and think about the degree of responsibility for each individual child,  [12]  and doing that, however briefly, kept the childhood status in tact. The symbolism of the abolition In spite of these arguments, Jack Straw said on 3 June 1998; with great respect, we are abolishing the concept of doli incapax and thus England and Wales saw the erosion of the policy of protection. However, this was combated with the justification that removal of protection was removal of excuse culture.  [13]  Nevertheless, supporters of the doctrine still implore the judiciary to recognise at least some protection. The recent case of R v T  [14]  in 2008 it was proposed that only the presumption had been abolished  [15]  and that the defence remained in tact. But this proposition was quickly flattened and children aged 10-14 would be treated in the same way as other juveniles in deciding whether to prosecute. The abolition of doli incapax was discoursed in conjunction with increasing the age of criminal responsibility, but now there has been an absolute abolition, the government has carried out one without the other, and has left a vacuum where protection should be. Th erefore, what doli incapax stood for; its symbolism of protection was quashed and children are treated like adults once again. The possible justifications for this are set out in Part Two. PART TWO CRIMINALISATION AND THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD There is little doubt that punitive imperatives have shaped contemporary policy responses to child offenders in England and Wales.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Goldson (2002) The government is ignoring the widespread discourse and European recommendations about the rights of children. With their apparent stubbornness, not to mention the abolition of the centuries old presumption of doli incapax, the question is why are we wedded to the extreme desire to pull children into the criminal justice system and criminalise, rather than taking the civil route which is based on the foundations of protection and welfare? Their policy has brought a large group of children under the auspices of the criminal justice system where previously they may have been successfully diverted. This current punitive climate can be justified to an extent because people have an innate interest in punishment. Namely, they will view children as adults seeing them as autonomous beings who bear responsibility for what they do, despite their age. In the NACRO youth crime briefing as recent as December 2008, the Committee expresses concern about the findings of a survey commissioned by Barnados  [16]  which show the negative public perception of children: 49% of people believe that children are increasingly a danger to each other and adults, 54% agreed that children are beginning to behave like animals, 35% of people feel like the streets are infested with children. In addition to this, after the 1994 government submission to the UNCRC, Barnados and the NSPCC highlighted their outrage of what the government purported to be happening in England and Wales, that it did not reflect what was happening in reality, and thus decided to write their own submissions such as these, showing that the UK Government has much to answer for. The public have a diverse perception of children in contrast with psychologists  [17]  and they want to prosecute them. To prosecute and put a child through the criminal system costs between  £75,000 (for a youth to be in a young offenders institute) and  £150,000 (for secure accommodation).  [18]  Although it might be a generally useful deterrent to use the threat of prosecution, recently it can be seen how arbitrarily it is used (which is in breach of Art 37(b) United Nation Convention on the Rights of the Child). For example, an article in The Mail Online  [19]  states that in Newark, Nottinghamshire, letters of warning have been sent out that children face prosecution and fines of up to  £100 if they annoy neighbours with ball games. . But if the child was to be prosecuted for kicking a ball around in the street, what would this really achieve? The answer is nothing. Prosecution and custody in this respect would be equivalent to an employer paying a new employee to go through a process which they know does not work,  [20]  which is obviously a waste of time for everyone involved. The government maintains that it is providing proportionate penalties for child offending and in its report to the CRC states they are keen to ensure that children are not prosecuted whenever an alternative can be found but the NACRO youth crime briefing successfully contests this articulating even those who are diverted [away from the courts] by being dealt with reprimand of final warning, are in effect [still] criminalised. It is also exceptionally questionable whether children should be tried in the Crown Courts, as the NACRO briefing  [21]  suggests that the Crown Court is primarily an arena for dealing with adult offenders through jury trial, and children who commit grave crimes are, in large degree, processed as if they were adults.  [22]   And so, in the shadow of sympathetic European progressiveness, New Labour, with its No More Excuses draconian approach has conceded to the whims of the public and are practically stealing away what it is to be a child, including what they deserve and have a right to protection, which a higher age of criminal responsibility would ensure. In Europe: UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) According to United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child regarding the age of criminal responsibility, countries should consider whether a child can live up to the moral and psychological components of criminal responsibility and notes that if the age of criminal responsibility is set too low the notion of responsibility would become meaningless. The Committee has recommended State Parties not to set a minimum age of criminal responsibility at a too low level and to increase an existing minimum age to an internationally acceptable level concluding that the minimum age below the age of 12 is considered unacceptable. According to UK Childrens Commissioners Report to the UNCRC, although the UK has ratified the UNCRC, the Convention is not part of domestic law and remains unenforceable. Recent legislative and policy developments are in clear breach of the UNCRC, for example, the naming and shaming of children subject to anti-social behaviour orders  [23]  . Even if these did not breach the Convention rights, it would be unsuccessful anyway, as some children, especially the higher end of the spectrum would actually be proud of having an ASBO, or as Deborah Orr suggests  [24]  , they would be badges of pride and perverse achievements. Thompson and Venables case study How it came about that two mentally normal boys aged 10 of average intelligence committed this terrible crime is very hard to comprehend . . . Morland, J The cases of R v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex parte V. and R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex parte T, concerned Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, both 10 ½ year old boys, being convicted of the murder of a two year old boy. They were only just over the age of criminal responsibility. They were sentenced to detention during Her Majestys Pleasure and the trial Judge; Morland J set the minimum term to be served at eight years to reflect their extreme youth. The NACRO youth crime briefing  [25]  Grave crimes, mode of trial, and long term detention, reports that the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR hereafter) determined that the defendants were denied a fair trial since they were unable to participate effectively in the proceedings given the nature of the court room and the intense public scrutiny saying the formality and ritual of the Crown Court must have seemed incomprehensible and intimidating for a child of eleven. This breaches Art 3 of the Convention, to have the best interests of the child as the primary consideration. The Youth Crime Briefing  [26]  reports that even after the Lord Chief Justice issued a Practice Direction (in February 2000), which gave guidance for the conduct of such proceedings and calls upon Crown Courts to have regard to the welfare of the child and to avoid exposing him or her, so far as possible, to intimidation, humiliation or distress (my emphasis added),further cases go on to breach Convention rights. This was detailed in the case of SC v UK  [27]  where an eleven year old boy who did not have the intellectual, moral or cognitive capacity for his age group, had his right to a fair trial breached even though the procedure adopted would have complied with the Practice Direction. The ECHR stated that: [He] has little comprehension of the role of the jury . Even more strikingly, he does not seem to have grasped the fact that he risked a custodial sentence, and even once sentence had been passed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ he appeared confused and expected to be able to go home with his foster father. The Court then went on to make recommendations as to how a child with the handicap of childhood should be processed that they should be tried in a specialist tribunal noting afterwards that there are at present no proposals to develop one. The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice The Beijing Rules. The Beijing Rules adopted by the General Assembly in 1985, specifies in section 4.1 that the lower age of criminal responsibility shall not be fixed at too low an age level, bearing in mind the facts of emotional, mental and intellectual maturity. The commentary states that a specific approach should be taken, which is whether a child can live up to the moral and psychological components of criminal responsibility and making explicit reference to the individual discernment and understanding. This relates profusely to the theories that Piaget and Kohlberg propose where they have said that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan, and I would suggest that to fix the age at ten is to put a limit on an uncertain event, that is to say, they are severely generalising the mental capacity of children, leading to injustices in the due process that children are entitled to have. Even if it can be argued that increasing the age would lead to net-widening of children (who may have developed moral capacity earlier) being excused for crimes, that does not displace the argument that the majority of crimes committed by children are minor, and could be prevented with concern for the individual offender and n ot the offence. . In fact, the Beijing Rules state in part 11.1, consideration shall be givenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦to dealing with juvenile offenders without resorting to formal trial emphasizing that, this practice [will] serve to hinder the negative effects of subsequent proceedings, such as the stigma of conviction and sentence. The Rules also make clear the relationship that the age of criminal responsibility must have with its other limitation counterparts; the legal age of consent, the legal age of drinking, marital status, civil majority for example. There is also the notion of the need of a higher mental intelligence, emotional and moral capacity to be responsible in respect to all of these, and this just does not sit well with having the age of criminal responsibility at ten.  [28]   Risk and Predictive Factors In addition to disregarding the Beijing Rules, the government have actually contributed to the reason that children are committing crimes, evidenced by certain predictive factors that have led to increased youth crime in certain contexts. The Youth Offending Board  [29]  maintains that anti-social behaviour and crime is not immediately down to the childs choice, but rather the context in which they are placed. From their web page headed, Targeted Prevention of Youth Crime and Anti-Social Behaviour they raise the policy issue of funding for a start, and reinforce that, one of the best and most cost-effective ways to reduce youth crime is to prevent young people from getting into trouble in the first place, by dealing with the problems that make it more likely they will commit crime or anti-social behaviour. They then proceed to list possible predictive factors such as lack of or poor education, poor family relationships (bad parenting), and the child living in public housing locat ed in high risk, inner city areas. To start with, the report from the UK Childrens Commissioners to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child evidenced that child poverty is high with around 3.1 million people living in poverty (29% of children) in England and more than 1 million children living in poor housing, which is a possible reason why children commit crime. Here it is not individual choice, but the governments own policy that is creating the increased likelihood of child offenders. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation suggests that current measures mean child poverty will rise from 18% to 33% over the next 20 years. They say the poverty gap is created by state benefits which are linked to inflation, rather than earnings, and that is of government concern. And so, if the Government is likely to miss its target to halve the number of children living in poverty by 2010, then they are in theory adding to the offending rates instead of reducing them, defeating their whole objective of being tough on crime. Other factors arise from poor parenting and bad education. In a speech to the Association of Teachers and Lecturers in 2002, the former education secretary Estelle Morris argued that bad parenting has created a cycle of disrespect among children, and again does not show it to be the individuals own choice. Poor education leads to truancy, alcohol misuse and other antisocial activities that adults would not be punished for. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation found that almost half the young people aged 11 to 17 reported committing at least one criminal act in a survey of 14,000 school students.  [30]  It is fair to argue that this shows crimes are being committed by children to whom doli incapax formerly applied, but this paper is not insisting that children between 10 and 14 do not commit crimes, it is reiterating that the punitive measures for this age group are a step backwards in an otherwise progressive world, and alternative measures are needed. The government have excused thems elves of any blame, when it is obvious from the above factors that they have an inherent part to play. Children are no longer treated as special cases when it comes to the types of penalties available to the courts when they ought to be. The status of childhood still remains and needs to be protected. But condemning children to the penalties that adults have, they are subverting the whole concept of childhood and are returning to the stage in history where children were no less than little adults  [31]  a definition which philanthropists such as Mary Carpenter in the very early stages of the youth justice system were trying to eradicate. PART THREE ALTERNATIVES Justice/Welfare Burgeoning youth incarceration and high reconviction rates in England and Wales have prompted a search for alternative responses. Pitts and Kuula  [32]   The overall aims of the criminal justice system are to avoid future re-offending and to exact retribution on behalf of the victim and society  [33]  as defined in s.37 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998. The UK government for England and Wales have two main options they could take towards a child who has committed a crime; a diversionary approach operating at a cautionary level or to prosecute amounting to either a judicial process of punishment on the basis of harm done or a punishment approach regarding the welfare of the child. The inability to comply with the UNCRC recommendations is exposed where they take the punitive route almost every time. The response to juveniles oscillates between the justice or welfare approach, that is to say whether you look to the offence of the offender. The welfare approach is founded on determinist reasons outside of the childs control, so he or she bears no responsibility. However the justice approach appears to predominate in England and Wales, which will inevitably mean that the age of criminal responsibility will remain too low, as it does not allow a child to be anything but responsible. Civil Law approach The civil family law is an example of the welfare approach. There is an odd dichotomy because, in contrast with the criminal law which employs a fixed cut-off point, family law takes an individualised and functional approach, joined with a completely different perception of childhood, which is in line with the UNCRC. The perception seems nearer to that outlined by Piaget and Kohlberg which understands the vulnerable and dependent nature of a child, and again works on the basis that the childs welfare is paramount. Helen Keating also suggests that the child may also be seen as incompetent in legal terms, and that developmental discourse has found expression in law and has made its way into the system through the test formulated from Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority and Another  [34]  . . The level of competence required is sufficient understanding and intelligence to enable him to understand fully what is proposed and sufficient discretion to enable him to make a wise choice in his or her own interests.  [35]  Despite the problems that the test can amount to, such as delay in ascertaining the competence, its influence has become enshrined in statute. The Children Act 1989 even begins with a checklist for the welfare principle stating that the court should have regard to the the ascertainable wishes and feelings of the child considered in the light of his or her age and understanding.  [36]  Ã‚   . There is no such parallel in criminal law, which begs the question of why two systems running side by side are contradictory. It cannot be that the children in family law cases are more vulnerable than those in criminal law, so it must be due to the approach. The UK Government should take a step back and try to ignore the distorted perceptions of children that the public emanate, and look more closely at the individual child perhaps even looking at them as if they were their own young. Comparative Systems With the New Labour policy so behind most other countries it is unsurprising that one can find models of welfare based systems which, despite their own shortcomings (such as paternalistic decision-making) still puts us to shame. Lesley McAra introduces a substantive summary of the developments in Scottish Youth Justice  [37]  noting it exhibited a high degree of stability in its welfare based institutional framework and policy ethos, up until it started acting like England. By filtering in punitive measures such as anti-social behaviour legislation when the Children (Scotland) Act was passed in 1995, Scotland has conceded to the publics moral panics about persistent offenders and is transforming. The fact that their age of criminal responsibility is going to raise to 12 (from 8) when the Scottish Governments Criminal Justice and Licensing Bill passes in 2009, may just have saved them from themselves. This was the philosophy of the Kilbrandon Committees  [38]  childrens hearing system. Here a child, passing several grounds for referral (which are astonishingly similar to the grounds that the civil (family) law invokes for a Care Order  [39]  .. is or is likely to suffer serious harm and/or with admission of guilt) are referred to a tribunal consisting of lay-people, who operated from a needs not deeds viewpoint was in direct contrast with Englands Ingleby Committee. It will bring Scotland into line with most of Europe, but the Scottish Government said the rise would not mean letting off younger offenders, as Justice Secretary Kenny MacAskill said amongst recent discourse, Evidence shows that prosecution at an early age increases the chance of reoffending so this change is about preventing crime. Rather they will be held to account in a way that is appropriate for their stage of development and ensures that we balance their needs with the need to protect our communities. Similarly in Finland a different approach is taken. The age of criminal responsibility is 15, and their answer is to look at the child on the whole; their environment whilst dividing children into their age groups based on cognitive functions, needs, and understanding. Moving from a punitive to welfare syste

The Middle Ages Essay -- History Historical Middle Ages Essays

The Middle Ages Throughout time, history has taken some strange turns. A single ruler establishing some new form of government can transform entire civilizations, or a single event can lead to the creation of a great new people. Whatever the case, history can repeat itself in time. One possible exemption of this could be Britain’s time period of the Middle Ages. Bearing a distinct and unique culture relative to the time period, some of the values and the customs held during this time have yet to be repeated in history. It is perhaps the most unique period of all time for the British Isles. Brief History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before the period of the middle ages, the British Isles mostly lay dormant in local disputes and settlements of small tribes. Up until the late 900’s, the Anglos and the Saxons laid their claim to the land of Britain. However, this all soon changed. An ambitions individual with hero-like characteristics set foot and conquered the Anglo-Saxons and started Britain on its journey to modernism. Thus, the tide was set in motion for a new government and a civilized race. A monarchy was established, and the Middle ages began in roughly 975 AD (Vinogradoff, p 18). Feudal Life   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the Medieval Period, life was either very great or very bad, according to your class. Only 2 classes existed during this time: the nobles, such as kings and knights who lived inside the castle, or the peasants, such as working-class people who lived in often unspeakable conditions. The peasants treated the nobles with the utmost respect, for if they didn’t, then the nobles could have them beheaded. (Sanders, p 34). The nobles were almost always the ones who owned land, and the peasants worked on this land in exchange for a small portion of it, in a sense, rented out in exchange for the labor. Peasants often worked 16-hour days as long as they could see into the nighttime and got very bad nourishment. The noble was not interested in the health of the peasants working on his land, as there was a significant supply of others who were very willing to take his or her place.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Women had a very difficult position in society during the Middle Ages. The feudal age was known for its superstitions, and women were often convicted of witchcraft and burned at the stake. Some of the more lucky women held professions of there own, such as blacksmiths, carpenters, and apothecaries.... ...een defined. Juggling became a popular form of entertainment, as it was unpredictable and seemingly deadly objects could produce awe and inspiration to the audience. Drama also played a big role during this time period, and plays were acted out only by males and only for the noble class. (McCarthy, para. 3).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Perhaps the greatest and most unique time period of all time for the British Isles was the Middle Ages. The feudal system and the role of the monarchy led this seemingly boring piece of time on the path towards greatness in meaning and value. Social skills developed during this time to force humans to cooperate and work together to produce a lifestyle that was beneficial to everyone and not just a leader. Lessons have been learned from this time period, such that it is not perfect. Disputes inside a community cannot be solved easily because they often affect the whole community and there will only be one side. Perhaps there are more lessons to be learned from this time. One can only hope that the future of modern warfare could be secretly embedded in the time of the middle ages. History has a tendency to repeat itself; maybe the time has come for the middle ages.

Japanese Aum Lesson For The World :: essays research papers fc

JAPANESE AUM’S LESSON FOR THE WORLD On 20 March 1995, Aum members simultaneously released the chemical nerve agent sarin on several Tokyo subway trains, killing 12 people and injuring up to 6,000 more. Today’s law enforcement is constantly dealing with smaller and smaller terrorist groups. Throughout history, large armies have fought battles, but today individuals fight battles. With modern technology and an open market for weapons of mass destruction, terrorism has reached a level obtainable by even the smallest groups. The Japanese Aum taught the world a lesson on how easily an organization can threaten a nation with chemical and biological terrorism. The Aum Shinrikyo (meaning the Aum Supreme Truth) was built on the belief of one man being the messiah. Chizuo Matsumoto was born blind in one eye and partially sighted in the other to an extremely poor craftsman of straw mats. As a young boy, Chizuo attended local schools, dreamt of being a leader, and even boasted to peers of one day being the Prime Minister of Japan. Chizuo went out to find wealth with his disadvantages and came up with a plan that started a cult, the Aum Shinrikyo. Under this new cult Chizuo was named Shoko Asahara, due mostly in part to a messiah needing a more flashy name (Kaplan, 12). This new self-made messiah has proved that anyone with a little charisma can influence people to do extraordinary acts that would normally not be considered. Unlike other leaders of terrorist organizations, for example bin Laden, Asahara did not have a lot of money to start a new organization. This is only one example of how easy it was for one charismatic person to get an organi zation ready for an attack with chemical and biological weapons. The Aum Supreme Truth organization was established in 1985 with Asahara as the modern-day messiah. Very quickly, Aum collected a large following through various means, including, but not limited to, leafleting and street corner proselytizing (Susumu, 387). Aum’s classes on yoga, herbal healing and meditation also played a part. Additionally, Aum owned a number of computer stores, bookstores and noodle shops through which it was able to gain recruits. Using these methods for enrollment, the Aum was able to gather a following for the new messiah to lead them to peace and tranquility. These acts of street corner recruitment and storefront displays showed that there is no place safe from a terrorist organization’s reach to influence the public mind.

Past and Present Chapter Essay

Opportunity and self-made men were the order of the day The founding fathers considered democracy to be direct rule of the people A concept they feared and rejected Jacksonians considered â€Å"the voice of the people† to be â€Å"the voice of God† Democracy and Society No one could expect social privilege because of family ties European visitors noted the lack of first class accommodations The word â€Å"servant† was disappearing; in its place was â€Å"help† Domestic workers were not considered a social subclass Members of different earning groups dressed similarly Democracy expressed itself in medicine, law and religion Unorthodox â€Å"healers† were given place alongside doctors Local bars allowed lower standards in some areas The clergy came under more control of the laity The popular press became increasingly important Written and read by common people Many small venues and a few influential papers with large readership Democratic Culture Democratic expression in literature and art Popular taste v. elite or traditional culture Romanticism was â€Å"adapted† to sentimentalism in popular literature Formulaic gothic novels sold well Possible because of increased literacy Also cheaper printing More novels written by women Universal white manhood suffrage was the rule by the 1820s Rise in elected v appointed officials Stump speaking and campaigning became the norm More festive and dramatic Martin Van Buren and others began to build statewide political organizations Idea of the â€Å"loyal opposition† developed Other political changes Two party system enhanced Electors more often chosen by popular vote Voting percentages increased dramatically 1824—27% 1828—55% 1840—78% Why more interest? Panic of 1819—concern about money issues Issues such as banks, tariffs, internal improvements Jacksonians were concerned about monied interests Opponents were concerned about rabble rousers Should the federal government become more active? Foster economic growth? Destroy corporate privilege and monopoly? Support the rights of the working man? Abolish inheritance, improve public education? New York Working Men’s Party thought so Also favored redistribution of assets Philadelphia was a center of labor activity General Trades’ Unions was formed Achieved a 10-hour workday Set an early precedent for mass action Abolitionists became more active Some also wanted equal rights for women These reformers saw little success.